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Major Md Nazmul Hasan, SUP, psc, Signals
Abstract
Combat Communication of Bangladesh Army is based on the traditional Headquarters-based backbone with age-old radio sets and other equipment. On the other hand, with the passage of time, the nature of warfare has largely changed. In the present world, nation states are more interested in indirect conflicts degrading the opponents’ key capabilities to attain their politico-military
objectives.
As a developing nation, Bangladesh is also vulnerable to such hybrid threats due to its geopolitical position and emerging economy. The neighbouring states of Bangladesh and other regional countries have already been involved in hybrid nature of warfare. The Rohingya problem, the Seven Sisters’ separatist movement, etcetera. might all lead to low-intensity war between countries that heavily employ hybrid warfare.
Therefore, it is more possible that the knock-on effects of a conflict with such a mixed nature will soon have an impact on Bangladesh. In this scenario, Bangladesh Army should look for enhancing combat effectiveness in consideration of what nature of threats it might envisage. In this connection, one of the most important aspects of combat effectiveness, communication structure must be enhanced to face these kinds of hybrid threats.
To facilitate the enhancement of combat effectiveness, Bangladesh Army needs to restructure the combat communication incorporating Satellite-Based Communication Structure (SBCS) to provide necessary support to the fighting echelon in the face of Hybrid Warfare. Although hybrid threats include all Armed Forces, this article will mainly focus on Bangladesh Army keeping other sister services out of purview.
Introduction
The paradigm shift in technology in last century has brought the world into the era of hybrid warfare. Present and future battlefield are dominated by technological development, the notion of multi-domain warfare, artificial intelligence, network-centric warfare, and the hybrid characteristics of conflict. As a rising economy in Southeast Asia, Bangladesh has also become vulnerable to Hybrid threats. (1)
Being an important stakeholder of national security, BD army is the primarily responsible organisation for countering these threats with vigour. However, to counter hybrid threats poised against BD, army needs to enhance its combat effectiveness to make its fighting capability at par with the modern trend of warfare. For this adaptation, incorporation of modern equipment in the inventory like the Satellite-based Communication Structure (SBCS) can be an effective way forward for the enhancement of combat effectiveness in the face of Hybrid Warfare.
The combat effectiveness of a military unit in performing its mission depends on its capabilities including equipment and personnel and its ability to use those capabilities. The organization or structure of a military unit can contribute to the cohesion of the overall entity. (2) Therefore, changes in the structure of various sectors like combat communication can greatly contribute to enhancement of the combat effectiveness of Bangladesh Army.
The author, from his personal experiences of serving in different combat units, feels that combat communication structure is one of the grey areas which needs to be restructured to counter the emerging hybrid threats. Satellite being one of the versatile communication media of the twenty-first century can be a solution to this requirement. Satellite communication links offer flexible data transmission for ground, sea, and airborne units.
Military satellites use more expensive, complex, and jam-resistant technologies to reduce their vulnerability to jamming. (3) Moreover, it can generate a base of interconnectivity among all the battlefield operating systems (BOS). It can also provide the required redundancy for the continuation of operations in the face of potential threats. Thereby, a reform in combat communication structure based on satellite can provide Bangladesh Army required amount of robustness and redundancy.
In the present context of modern warfare, it has become imperative for Bangladesh Army to increase its combat effectiveness incorporating modern trend of communication media. To facilitate the enhancement of combat effectiveness, Bangladesh Army needs to restructure the combat communication incorporating SBCS to provide necessary support to the fighting echelon in the face of Hybrid Warfare.
Hence, this article will first focus on Doctrinal and Organisational grey areas those need to be restructured due to their vulnerability to Hybrid threats. Thereafter, it will unveil the conceptualization of incorporation of SBCS with the existing communication structure to enhance the combat effectiveness of Bangladesh Army for hybrid warfare. In its ultimate analysis, the article will highlight the challenges to incorporate SBCS with plausible measures to mitigate those challenges. This article will also suggest a roadmap to enhance the combat effectiveness with SBCS for Hybrid Warfare.
Doctrinal and Organisational Grey Areas Vulnerable To Hybrid Threats
Hybrid warfare changes how troops participate in conflict, not its essence. However, when it occurs, it is war. Hybrid warfare helps analyze wars with regular and irregular forces fighting symmetrically and asymmetrically. (4) Therefore, the threats developed which are termed ‘hybrid threats’ have a nature that can affect the plan at both operational and tactical levels. To identify gray areas in our doctrine and organisation, it is imperative to know about the threats of different levels which are pertinent to BD Army.
Levels of Hybrid Threats
Hybrid threats may be classified into strategic, operational, and tactical levels. Strategic hybrid threats often threaten a country’s territorial integrity. Strategically, hybrid warfare might compromise all national power components. Operational level hybrid threats may target a specific region or part of the national power structure before declaring victory through media campaigns. However, threats at the tactical level, however, may not endanger territorial integrity but instead do great harm to the country.
Threats in Strategic Fronts
Regional and National Security Threats: One of the directors of NSI said Bangladesh is geo-strategically exposed to its neighbours. Though Bangladesh maintains good relations with all its neighbours, Bangladesh could be a victim of neighbouring states’ solarism. Secondly, Bangladesh’s technological progress has boosted social media’s reach. This strengthens partnerships. Morality and morals are declining in modern culture. Social malice, drug abuse, and youth violence are indications of social decline.
Threats to Cyber Space: In one FGD with Directors of DGFI, NTMC, and NSI, all the participants agreed that in the present context, when Bangladesh is booming with digitisation in every sector, the country’s cyberspace has automatically been threatened by both state and nonstate actors. Bangladesh Bank incident was an eye-opener for both law-enforcing agencies and operators. It is now obvious that to be a self-solvent nation it is important to embrace the reality of cyberspace to be protected like any other space of the country.
Operational Threats
Armed Forces are the main target in operational hybrid threats. Non-state actors alone or with the military can be a serious threat to the opposing military. The threat could cause a national disaster. Hezbollah’s strike on Israeli Defence Forces and ISIL’s attack on Iraqi forces are examples of operational level hybrid threats. The rivals of BD may use Rohingya crisis, religious extremism and terrorists, Cyber Threat, Hate Campaign, EW to damage communication structure, and Man in the Middle to degrade the military capability.
Tactical Threats
Threats to information security, frequency usage, communication breakdown, and country’s. Threat defence system are typical tactical dangers. BD Army dealt with similar threats in Operation CLEAN HEART, UTTARAN, and ALOR SONDHANEY. The Holey Artisan Bakery
attack in 2016 and the Atiya Mahal attack in 2017 are two cases when the BD Army needed to intervene as the government’s last choice.
Doctrinal Grey Areas
Hybrid warfare is often cheap and a matter of skill. It might upset the power balance. This is especially true for weaker nation states or non-state groups or power-imbalanced opponents. Hybrid warfare is vital to BD Army and can be successful. Considering the threats to which BD is exposed, following gray areas are identified:-
Organisational Gray Area
Lack of Adaptive or Flexible Organisational Structure: According to Director of Military Operations and Director of Signal Directorate, Bangladesh Army lacks in flexible operational communication structure. The existing radio, line and Radio Relay communication are costly, time consuming and dependent on the weather. This communication is also susceptible to electronic jamming, interception, and hacking. Therefore, more mobile, reliable, secure, adaptive, and flexible structure are required.
Lack of Institutional Training: From the training perspective, Bangladesh Army is more inclined to the conventional threats. Due to hybrid threats, it’s time to expand asymmetric and symmetric training facilities. Modern technology should be used. All the BOS elements must be interconnected and that will give the combined effect on the battlefield.
No Planned Exercises on Hybrid Threats: All the exercises of Bangladesh Army are mostly conventional operation biased. There should be an adequate number of joint exercises based on hybrid threats. All the modern technologies adopted in Army should be tested on the ground. Then the efficiency of the army can be tested and enhanced.
Requirement of Restructuring the Communication Structure: Communication system should be restructured based on threats. Instead of divided development, the entire system should be reformed using contemporary, secure technologies. The technology should have the following characteristics:
a. Robust and Flexible doctrine to counter hybrid threats.
b. Reliable and Secured Communication Structure to provide security.
Conceptualisation of Incorporating SBCS with the Existing Communication Structure
Introducing satellite-based communication with the existing structure is a need of time for the modernisation of BD Army. However, the criticality lies where SBCS is needed to be meshed with the existing structure. It can be ensured by establishing interconnectivity among BOSs, interfacing with conventional media, and by clearly defining the role and functions of satellite communication. Though the structure seems complex, the inception is not cumbersome.
Structure of SBCS
Interconnectivity among BOSs: Modern wars include synchronisation of BOSs. Each arm has distinct qualities, yet they may complement each other. When combined, their skills deliver a decisive victory. Both operational and tactical commanders must coordinate the BOSs. While conventional communication means are effective in a conventional environment, in the case of hybrid threats it will be difficult to maintain all BOSs interconnected. Therefore, a more robust structure is required. SBCS is a way forward for this. All elements of the battlefield will have interconnectivity with a never-ending source of global eagle eye which not only will provide the necessary robustness of fighting but also bring the best effectiveness out of Bangladesh Armed forces.
Interfacing with Conventional Communication Media: During peace and conflict, Bangladesh Army can provide up to Brigade Headquarters level communication. Again, an army’s combat efficiency depends on how well its commanders and troops are networked. (5) Bangladesh Army's communication structure may be separated into two major categories to assess SBCS and traditional methods. They are as follows:-
a. Tactical Ground Network: The field level network of Bangladesh Army is decentralized. Units are responsible for communicating with subunits where radio and line dominate. While weather affects most radio communications, during the war, Artillery and sabotage activities may damage lines. In no way, these means can be suitable for any modern army. Bangladesh Army needs an autonomous framework to network battlefield operators effectively. SBCS is a solution. It ensures subunit interconnection and ensures higher headquarters monitoring. Figure 7 shows the proposed army Satcom structure for an initial start:
b. Command to Ground Network: Presently, Bangladesh Army can provide communication up to the brigade Headquarters level. Voice and minimal data capabilities. Radio is used for voice. BD Army employs line and canopy for data connections. Since tall features will be destroyed on the battlefield, you must have alternatives. BD Army employs Dispatch Rider (DR) as an option. The standard communication network is unstable under normal conditions, much alone in a conflict situation. If SBCS can be implemented, then a stable and dependable framework can support to company headquarters. To have necessary interfacing Bangladesh Army can have a structure as follows:-
Conceptualization of SBCS
Structuring Satellite-Based Communication: For structuring SBCS a strong base is needed. It is possible by organising a TO&E for the structure. Normally, for any satellite communication, a hub station and remote nodal points which are also termed ground stations are required. All the ground stations are controlled by the hub station. The satellite works as the media for transmission and reception. As per Army Doctrine, following are the components for the smooth connectivity among the different elements of the BOSs:-
Use of Satellites for Communication: The military makes considerable use of satellites for communication. Military satellites use UHF (9225-3400MHz) and SHF (7.2-8.4GHz) frequencies, which they share with terrestrial and other satellite systems. Other military satellite communication frequencies include 14/11 GHz, 30/20 GHz, and 40/60 GHz. The availability of higher frequency bands permits more traffic, improves protection against interference, and decreases the likelihood of detecting signals from hidden terminals. Satellite communication systems provide a variety of advantages that are being explored extensively for military purposes. They include the following:-
Advantages Offered by Satellite-Borne Terminals: In addition to the basic benefits stated before, satellite-borne tactical terminals provide the following additional advantages that make communication through satellites more appealing to military leaders:-
Time and Cost Requirement: As many industrialized nations developed space communications and technology, our country attempted to establish its cultural and geographical identity. The USSR, US, and Canada launched satellites after 1957. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, it’s GDP was worth $8 billion, while industrialized nations spent hundreds of billions on space exploration. Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman revived the economy despite war-ravaged institutions and a dearth of inventive regulators. Bangladesh launched its satellite to lessen its dependency on other nations for sustainable development. Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC) began working with US-based consultancy firm SPI and the ITU to launch Bangladesh’s first satellite.
Utility/ Outcome for BD Army: BS-1 would promote various national and defence enterprises, including broadcasters, ISPs, governments, and the military. Telephony, radio, and data communications are BS-1's main communication services. The national and military prospects for these main and specialized services is discussed below:
a. Communications Services: Communication services are shown in the Figure below:-
b. Special Services: Enhanced adoption of the communication services will allow various BS-1 services to enhance national and social development.
c. Military Services: In addition to the special services for national development, Bangladesh Armed Forces Division may also establish distinct BS-1 services. Several of these specialized services are shown in the Figure below:-
Enhancement of Combat Effectiveness through Incorporation of SBCS
Value to Quantitative Factor: Philip Hayward provides a measure for combat effectiveness based on ‘probability of success’ in relation to personnel and military strategy. He analysed the measure against three primary factors: capabilities (human and material resources of friendly and hostile troops), environment (weather and topography), and missions (region to hold in the specified objective and the latest time to do it while minimising the costs of achieving the objective). (6)
Therefore, as the incorporation of SBCS will add value to the capability of BD Army, it can be said that it will have a positive qualitative effect on the overall combat effectiveness of BD Army. Korean scholar Youngwoo Lee and Taesik Lee who used a ‘meta-network representation’ approach regarding the opportunities available for military units opined that there are two types of direct engagements with enemy forces in the network model: isolated attacks and coordinated attacks. (7)
To counter hybrid threats, a country needs to develop coordinated effort capabilities. In that sense, the incorporation of SBCS will not only add value to the quantitative aspect of combat effectiveness but also assist BD Army to enhance combat effectiveness in a hybrid war scenario.
Value to Psychological Factors: Cohesion can affect soldiers' fighting performance and help them attain shared goals. According to William Henderson in Cohesion: Combat Humanity: Smaller units have closer interactions, and these bonds are stronger the more they interact. (8) Therefore, the psychological impact of the structure of military units on combat effectiveness is huge. Since SBCS will enhance the efficiency of the communication structure of BD Army, it will have a noteworthy impact on the psychological aspect of the combat effectiveness of our troops in terms of cohesion.
Capability Enhancement for Countering Hybrid Threats: To counter hybrid threats the ‘Detect, Deter and Respond’ formula is the most popular one. SBCS can be correlated with the enhancement of combat efficiency of BD Army based on this model:-
Communication on the Move: Military communication should be smooth in terms of setup, control, and maintenance. Satellite communication involves vehicle-borne equipment and manpacks. This structure will provide BD Army to exercise a smooth and reliable means of communication on the move.
Flexibility and Redundancy: Another important aspect of military communication is to have redundancy and flexibility. The incorporation of SBCS will provide the necessary flexibility to the existing system. On the contrary, within the SBCS, as all the links are interconnected, it provides enough flexibility in the communication structure.
Enhanced Combined Effect of BOSs: In hybrid warfare, there is always a need for the enhanced effect of BOSs. If the threats are taken into consideration, it is evident that, without reliable and effective communication, the desired effect of the BOSs cannot be achieved. Based on the above discussion, it is evident that SBCS is a time-needed affair for BD Army. Though the conceptualisation of SBCS is a time and cost-expensive phenomenon, considering the benefit it must be adopted. Based on the above-mentioned benefits, it is undoubtedly proved that the conceptualisation of SBCS in BD Army will enhance the combat effectiveness of BD Army significantly.
Challenges, Ways Forward and Roadmap to SBCS Challenges
Lack of Experts: Though satellite communication is not new in Bangladesh, the concept of incorporating satellite communication in BD Army is relatively new. Therefore, relevant experts could not grow in BD Army. This is the challenge that must be addressed to incorporate this modern technology.
Phenomenal Capital Expenditure: Another challenge of the satellite communication structure is its phenomenal capital investment requirement. A five-year project was proposed for the satellite communication which will be a huge challenge for a country like Bangladesh.
Requirement of Costly Training Facilities: For growing expertise in BD Army, Army requires costly training facilities. As the training in satellite communication involves real-time satellite involvement, it will be difficult to manage slots in the functional satellite for training purposes only. Therefore, the required training facility involves expensive procedure which is a big challenge.
Rapid Changeover among Communication Means: The combat communication requires high degree of adaptability with the changes of the scenario in the battlefield. It encompasses availability of alternative means of communication media, all weather tenacious structure, required interfacing provision, and flexibility in terms of application. Hence, requirement of rapid changeover among the communication means is always a challenge for the new system to adapt with the existing system.
Interoperability with Joint Services: As different services have their own types of communication gadgets, it will be a huge challenge to incorporate SBCS with other services. Careful planning and management are very much essential to have smooth interoperability among services.
Security Concerns: Though it is not easy to intercept any satellite communication, it is not impossible. It requires huge efforts to breech any satellite-based network. Therefore, security concern in a functional point of view is less for SBCS. However, the physical security of the hub stations is the main problem.
Requirement of Redundancy: Since satellite-based equipment is costly, it is not possible to make provision of enough redundant terminal stations as reserves. Therefore, it is a big challenge for Army to influence the op without the redundant system of SBCS in case of any destruction by the enemy (1).
Ways Forward
Provision of Communications in Irregular Warfare: Communication is vulnerable in a hybrid conflict situation. While conventional communication methods are tested to give conventional warfare communication to fighting echelons, it is a problem to communicate with unconventional warfare troops. Small aperture antennas can be established within a very short time in the forward bases to establish communication with unconventional warfare troops.
Ensure Secure Communication: Bangladesh Armed Forces Division inked an MOU with Bangladesh Satellite Company Limited (BSCL) on 13 May 2022. According to the MOU, Bangladesh Armed Forces can employ three Bangabandhu Satellite-1 transponders for contemporary, secure communications for military. (9) Therefore, Bangladesh is in the right track to achieve more secure communication system using satellite.
Quick Reaction Communication Team (QRCT): Quick response must be incorporated. It will improve satellite ground communications. The powerful satellite communication equipment will test users. Moreover, in extreme scenarios users will have little time to troubleshoot. Therefore, QRCT will be needed to manage ground-based equipment.
Induction of Satellite Communication Equipment: Incorporating satellite communication equipment into the military won’t be easy. The induction process will require funding, training, logistic plan, and joint environment interoperability. A model of this Induction can be suggested as follows:-
Guidance on the Electronic Warfare (EW) Threats: Protecting command, control, and communication networks requires strong electronic warfare capability. (10) Moreover, modern warfare requires superior EW equipment. The EW company was formed in 2009, but it could not acquire offensive ECM so far. Satellite Communication can be a way forward. In the fog of war, it is not a cost-effective solution to strike satellite networks by the enemy. Therefore, satellite links are automatically immune to EW threat.
Provision of Communications in National Crisis: Communication is crucial in a national catastrophe to save lives. This communication is needed for emergency medical supply, relief program administration, transferring individuals to safe shelters, and post-event negotiations. Existing system solely uses radio to connect base. Radio isn’t a secure or dependable communication method. During a national crisis, we cannot set up telephone lines. As satellite communication is more mobile, flexible, reliable, and secure, it can be used during national emergency flawlessly.
Sound Training Plan: As satellite-based communication equipment is complex in nature, the users require extensive training for the setup and management of the equipment. Therefore, BD army should have a sound training plan for its members in Satellite-Based communication equipment.
Plan for Joint Operation: Though different services have their own perspective plan to incorporate SBCS, there is no coordination among the services in this regard. The desired networkcentric model or structure of the joint environment can only be achieved if the coordination is established under a single perspective plan to incorporate the SBCS. A diagrammatic layout of jointness in satellite communication is shown below:-
Roadmap to the SBCS
Extensive Exercise to Institutionalise: After the successful induction of SBCS, there is a need for institutionalisation. The adaptability of the equipment to the organisational framework will render a considerable amount of time. Therefore, to make the institution habituated with the system and to be able to establish the logical links among the various stakeholders of army, BD army needs extensive exercises to be conducted to institutionalise SBCS.
Communication for all Eventualities: In hybrid scenario, all eventualities need to have enough options and contingencies. SBCS can be a milestone for contingency communication. As all battlefield elements will be inter-connected by satellite in SBCS, if one link fails, other elements of the network will broadcast the command to make it up. Therefore, the leaders will be able to influence the battlefield by communicating with their subordinates in all scenarios.
Provision of Head-to-Head Communication: Another important aspect of reaching every corner of the battlefield by the commander of the theatre is to ensure head-to-head to communication. It ensures unity of effort, leadership, full-scale operational execution, less chance of fratricide, and ease of planning. SBCS can ensure this. The main theme of incorporating SBCS into the system is the concept of connecting men from the exact point of contact. BD Army needs to build a culture of head-to-head communication and SBCS is a suitable way of achieving it.
Enhancement of Command and Control: C4ISR cannot be implemented without command and control over every system in the theatre of operation. To accomplish that, the original conventional system must have a robust communication mechanism. Most modern militaries have embraced the SBCS to achieve it.
Network Centric Tactical Communication Architecture: To provide a C4ISR Network-Centric Tactical Communication Architecture for BD Army utilising a satellite backbone, a self-sufficient model is shown in the Figure below:-
Conclusion
In this era of modern technology, battlefields have become fluid. The conflicts among nations are more hybrid in nature. The notion of multi-domain warfare, artificial intelligence, network-centric warfare, and the hybrid characteristics of conflict are more dominating than ever before. Bangladesh is no exception to this. Being the stakeholder of national security, BD army is primarily responsible to assess and analyse possible countermeasures to counter these hybrid threats.
One of the countermeasures is to enhance the combat effectiveness to make the fighting capability of BD Army at par with the modern trend of warfare. For this adaptation, the incorporation of modern equipment in the inventory like the Satellite-based Communication Structure (SBCS) can be an effective way forward for the enhancement of combat effectiveness in the face of Hybrid Warfare. The incorporation of satellite-based communication into the existing framework is imperative for the modernization of the Bangladesh Army.
However, the crux of the matter lies in seamlessly integrating SBCS with the current infrastructure. This can be achieved by establishing interconnectivity among BOSs, interfacing with traditional communication mediums, and precisely delineating the role and functions of satellite communication. While the structure may appear intricate, the implementation process is not unduly burdensome. Hence, with the integration of SBCS, the capability of the Bangladesh Army stands to be significantly enhanced, thereby leading to a positive qualitative impact on its overall combat effectiveness.
In conclusion, the integration of SBCS into the framework of the Bangladesh Army presents both significant challenges and promising opportunities for enhancing its combat capabilities in the modern warfare landscape. Addressing challenges such as the lack of experts, substantial capital expenditure, and the need for costly training facilities is paramount to successfully incorporating satellite-based communication technology.
However, with careful planning and strategic initiatives, including ensuring secure communication channels, establishing quick reaction communication teams, and developing sound training plans, these challenges can be overcome. Furthermore, the roadmap outlined for the deployment of SBCS offers a comprehensive approach towards achieving enhanced command and control, seamless interoperability, and robust communication infrastructure. Ultimately, the adoption of SBCS represents a pivotal step towards modernizing the Bangladesh Army and bolstering its effectiveness in responding to the dynamic challenges of contemporary warfare scenarios.
Recommendations
Army Training and Doctrine Command (ARTDOC) may propose a comprehensive doctrine for hybrid warfare with a special emphasis on Cyber Warfare, Electronic Warfare, Propaganda Warfare, and Information Warfare.
The peculiarity of conventional communication and modern communication must be assessed by the subject matter expert in this field. The communication experts of the Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST) may be incorporated into the feasibility study in terms of technical aspects.
While implementing SBCS, the interoperability among the Joint services should be considered. For that central procurement of the equipment is proposed.
Notes and References
1. Md Ziaul Hoque, ‘Mechanized Infantry - A Future Arm of Bangladesh Army’, Bangladesh Army Journal, 61st Issue, 2017, pp. 18-30.
2. Darryl Henderson, ‘Cohesion: The Human Element in Combat’, Washington, DC, National Defence University Press, 1985, pp. 24-25.
3. Kumaraswamy Rao, ‘Status Study on the Sustainability of Satellite Communication Systems under Hostile Jamming Environment’, Annual IEEE India Conference, New Delhi, India, 16-18 December 2011.
4. Williamson Murray and Peter Mansoor, Hybrid Warfare: Fighting Complex Opponents from the Ancient World to the Present, New York, USA, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 3.
5. Philip Hayward, ‘The Measurement of Combat Effectiveness,’ Operations Research, INFORMS, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1968, pp. 314-323.
6. Youngwoo Lee and Taesik Lee, ‘A Measure to Assess Combat Effectiveness Using Network Representation,’ SCSC '13: Proceedings of the 2013 Summer Computer Simulation Conference, Ontario, Toronto, Canada 2013, pp.1-7.
7. Wang Jiesheng and Sun Weipu, ‘Value and Methods of Measuring Combat Effectiveness: A New Approach,’ Research Square, 12 April 2021, pp. 1-2.
8. ‘Armed Forces to Use Bangabandhu Satellite,’ The Daily Sun, available at: https://www.dailysun. com/post/620211/Armed-Forces-to-use- Bangabandhu-satellite, accessed on 02 February 2024.
9. Ibid.
10. Monirul Islam, ‘Asymmetric Warfare: Bangladesh Perspective,’ NDC Journal, Mirpur, Dhaka, Vol 7, 2008, pp. 111-132.
Abstract
Combat Communication of Bangladesh Army is based on the traditional Headquarters-based backbone with age-old radio sets and other equipment. On the other hand, with the passage of time, the nature of warfare has largely changed. In the present world, nation states are more interested in indirect conflicts degrading the opponents’ key capabilities to attain their politico-military
objectives.
As a developing nation, Bangladesh is also vulnerable to such hybrid threats due to its geopolitical position and emerging economy. The neighbouring states of Bangladesh and other regional countries have already been involved in hybrid nature of warfare. The Rohingya problem, the Seven Sisters’ separatist movement, etcetera. might all lead to low-intensity war between countries that heavily employ hybrid warfare.
Therefore, it is more possible that the knock-on effects of a conflict with such a mixed nature will soon have an impact on Bangladesh. In this scenario, Bangladesh Army should look for enhancing combat effectiveness in consideration of what nature of threats it might envisage. In this connection, one of the most important aspects of combat effectiveness, communication structure must be enhanced to face these kinds of hybrid threats.
To facilitate the enhancement of combat effectiveness, Bangladesh Army needs to restructure the combat communication incorporating Satellite-Based Communication Structure (SBCS) to provide necessary support to the fighting echelon in the face of Hybrid Warfare. Although hybrid threats include all Armed Forces, this article will mainly focus on Bangladesh Army keeping other sister services out of purview.
Introduction
The paradigm shift in technology in last century has brought the world into the era of hybrid warfare. Present and future battlefield are dominated by technological development, the notion of multi-domain warfare, artificial intelligence, network-centric warfare, and the hybrid characteristics of conflict. As a rising economy in Southeast Asia, Bangladesh has also become vulnerable to Hybrid threats. (1)
Being an important stakeholder of national security, BD army is the primarily responsible organisation for countering these threats with vigour. However, to counter hybrid threats poised against BD, army needs to enhance its combat effectiveness to make its fighting capability at par with the modern trend of warfare. For this adaptation, incorporation of modern equipment in the inventory like the Satellite-based Communication Structure (SBCS) can be an effective way forward for the enhancement of combat effectiveness in the face of Hybrid Warfare.
The combat effectiveness of a military unit in performing its mission depends on its capabilities including equipment and personnel and its ability to use those capabilities. The organization or structure of a military unit can contribute to the cohesion of the overall entity. (2) Therefore, changes in the structure of various sectors like combat communication can greatly contribute to enhancement of the combat effectiveness of Bangladesh Army.
The author, from his personal experiences of serving in different combat units, feels that combat communication structure is one of the grey areas which needs to be restructured to counter the emerging hybrid threats. Satellite being one of the versatile communication media of the twenty-first century can be a solution to this requirement. Satellite communication links offer flexible data transmission for ground, sea, and airborne units.
Military satellites use more expensive, complex, and jam-resistant technologies to reduce their vulnerability to jamming. (3) Moreover, it can generate a base of interconnectivity among all the battlefield operating systems (BOS). It can also provide the required redundancy for the continuation of operations in the face of potential threats. Thereby, a reform in combat communication structure based on satellite can provide Bangladesh Army required amount of robustness and redundancy.
In the present context of modern warfare, it has become imperative for Bangladesh Army to increase its combat effectiveness incorporating modern trend of communication media. To facilitate the enhancement of combat effectiveness, Bangladesh Army needs to restructure the combat communication incorporating SBCS to provide necessary support to the fighting echelon in the face of Hybrid Warfare.
Hence, this article will first focus on Doctrinal and Organisational grey areas those need to be restructured due to their vulnerability to Hybrid threats. Thereafter, it will unveil the conceptualization of incorporation of SBCS with the existing communication structure to enhance the combat effectiveness of Bangladesh Army for hybrid warfare. In its ultimate analysis, the article will highlight the challenges to incorporate SBCS with plausible measures to mitigate those challenges. This article will also suggest a roadmap to enhance the combat effectiveness with SBCS for Hybrid Warfare.
Doctrinal and Organisational Grey Areas Vulnerable To Hybrid Threats
Hybrid warfare changes how troops participate in conflict, not its essence. However, when it occurs, it is war. Hybrid warfare helps analyze wars with regular and irregular forces fighting symmetrically and asymmetrically. (4) Therefore, the threats developed which are termed ‘hybrid threats’ have a nature that can affect the plan at both operational and tactical levels. To identify gray areas in our doctrine and organisation, it is imperative to know about the threats of different levels which are pertinent to BD Army.
Levels of Hybrid Threats
Hybrid threats may be classified into strategic, operational, and tactical levels. Strategic hybrid threats often threaten a country’s territorial integrity. Strategically, hybrid warfare might compromise all national power components. Operational level hybrid threats may target a specific region or part of the national power structure before declaring victory through media campaigns. However, threats at the tactical level, however, may not endanger territorial integrity but instead do great harm to the country.
Threats in Strategic Fronts
Regional and National Security Threats: One of the directors of NSI said Bangladesh is geo-strategically exposed to its neighbours. Though Bangladesh maintains good relations with all its neighbours, Bangladesh could be a victim of neighbouring states’ solarism. Secondly, Bangladesh’s technological progress has boosted social media’s reach. This strengthens partnerships. Morality and morals are declining in modern culture. Social malice, drug abuse, and youth violence are indications of social decline.
Threats to Cyber Space: In one FGD with Directors of DGFI, NTMC, and NSI, all the participants agreed that in the present context, when Bangladesh is booming with digitisation in every sector, the country’s cyberspace has automatically been threatened by both state and nonstate actors. Bangladesh Bank incident was an eye-opener for both law-enforcing agencies and operators. It is now obvious that to be a self-solvent nation it is important to embrace the reality of cyberspace to be protected like any other space of the country.
Operational Threats
Armed Forces are the main target in operational hybrid threats. Non-state actors alone or with the military can be a serious threat to the opposing military. The threat could cause a national disaster. Hezbollah’s strike on Israeli Defence Forces and ISIL’s attack on Iraqi forces are examples of operational level hybrid threats. The rivals of BD may use Rohingya crisis, religious extremism and terrorists, Cyber Threat, Hate Campaign, EW to damage communication structure, and Man in the Middle to degrade the military capability.
Tactical Threats
Threats to information security, frequency usage, communication breakdown, and country’s. Threat defence system are typical tactical dangers. BD Army dealt with similar threats in Operation CLEAN HEART, UTTARAN, and ALOR SONDHANEY. The Holey Artisan Bakery
attack in 2016 and the Atiya Mahal attack in 2017 are two cases when the BD Army needed to intervene as the government’s last choice.
Doctrinal Grey Areas
Hybrid warfare is often cheap and a matter of skill. It might upset the power balance. This is especially true for weaker nation states or non-state groups or power-imbalanced opponents. Hybrid warfare is vital to BD Army and can be successful. Considering the threats to which BD is exposed, following gray areas are identified:-
Organisational Gray Area
Lack of Adaptive or Flexible Organisational Structure: According to Director of Military Operations and Director of Signal Directorate, Bangladesh Army lacks in flexible operational communication structure. The existing radio, line and Radio Relay communication are costly, time consuming and dependent on the weather. This communication is also susceptible to electronic jamming, interception, and hacking. Therefore, more mobile, reliable, secure, adaptive, and flexible structure are required.
Lack of Institutional Training: From the training perspective, Bangladesh Army is more inclined to the conventional threats. Due to hybrid threats, it’s time to expand asymmetric and symmetric training facilities. Modern technology should be used. All the BOS elements must be interconnected and that will give the combined effect on the battlefield.
No Planned Exercises on Hybrid Threats: All the exercises of Bangladesh Army are mostly conventional operation biased. There should be an adequate number of joint exercises based on hybrid threats. All the modern technologies adopted in Army should be tested on the ground. Then the efficiency of the army can be tested and enhanced.
Requirement of Restructuring the Communication Structure: Communication system should be restructured based on threats. Instead of divided development, the entire system should be reformed using contemporary, secure technologies. The technology should have the following characteristics:
a. Robust and Flexible doctrine to counter hybrid threats.
b. Reliable and Secured Communication Structure to provide security.
Conceptualisation of Incorporating SBCS with the Existing Communication Structure
Introducing satellite-based communication with the existing structure is a need of time for the modernisation of BD Army. However, the criticality lies where SBCS is needed to be meshed with the existing structure. It can be ensured by establishing interconnectivity among BOSs, interfacing with conventional media, and by clearly defining the role and functions of satellite communication. Though the structure seems complex, the inception is not cumbersome.
Structure of SBCS
Interconnectivity among BOSs: Modern wars include synchronisation of BOSs. Each arm has distinct qualities, yet they may complement each other. When combined, their skills deliver a decisive victory. Both operational and tactical commanders must coordinate the BOSs. While conventional communication means are effective in a conventional environment, in the case of hybrid threats it will be difficult to maintain all BOSs interconnected. Therefore, a more robust structure is required. SBCS is a way forward for this. All elements of the battlefield will have interconnectivity with a never-ending source of global eagle eye which not only will provide the necessary robustness of fighting but also bring the best effectiveness out of Bangladesh Armed forces.
Interfacing with Conventional Communication Media: During peace and conflict, Bangladesh Army can provide up to Brigade Headquarters level communication. Again, an army’s combat efficiency depends on how well its commanders and troops are networked. (5) Bangladesh Army's communication structure may be separated into two major categories to assess SBCS and traditional methods. They are as follows:-
a. Tactical Ground Network: The field level network of Bangladesh Army is decentralized. Units are responsible for communicating with subunits where radio and line dominate. While weather affects most radio communications, during the war, Artillery and sabotage activities may damage lines. In no way, these means can be suitable for any modern army. Bangladesh Army needs an autonomous framework to network battlefield operators effectively. SBCS is a solution. It ensures subunit interconnection and ensures higher headquarters monitoring. Figure 7 shows the proposed army Satcom structure for an initial start:
b. Command to Ground Network: Presently, Bangladesh Army can provide communication up to the brigade Headquarters level. Voice and minimal data capabilities. Radio is used for voice. BD Army employs line and canopy for data connections. Since tall features will be destroyed on the battlefield, you must have alternatives. BD Army employs Dispatch Rider (DR) as an option. The standard communication network is unstable under normal conditions, much alone in a conflict situation. If SBCS can be implemented, then a stable and dependable framework can support to company headquarters. To have necessary interfacing Bangladesh Army can have a structure as follows:-
Conceptualization of SBCS
Structuring Satellite-Based Communication: For structuring SBCS a strong base is needed. It is possible by organising a TO&E for the structure. Normally, for any satellite communication, a hub station and remote nodal points which are also termed ground stations are required. All the ground stations are controlled by the hub station. The satellite works as the media for transmission and reception. As per Army Doctrine, following are the components for the smooth connectivity among the different elements of the BOSs:-
Use of Satellites for Communication: The military makes considerable use of satellites for communication. Military satellites use UHF (9225-3400MHz) and SHF (7.2-8.4GHz) frequencies, which they share with terrestrial and other satellite systems. Other military satellite communication frequencies include 14/11 GHz, 30/20 GHz, and 40/60 GHz. The availability of higher frequency bands permits more traffic, improves protection against interference, and decreases the likelihood of detecting signals from hidden terminals. Satellite communication systems provide a variety of advantages that are being explored extensively for military purposes. They include the following:-
Advantages Offered by Satellite-Borne Terminals: In addition to the basic benefits stated before, satellite-borne tactical terminals provide the following additional advantages that make communication through satellites more appealing to military leaders:-
Time and Cost Requirement: As many industrialized nations developed space communications and technology, our country attempted to establish its cultural and geographical identity. The USSR, US, and Canada launched satellites after 1957. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, it’s GDP was worth $8 billion, while industrialized nations spent hundreds of billions on space exploration. Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman revived the economy despite war-ravaged institutions and a dearth of inventive regulators. Bangladesh launched its satellite to lessen its dependency on other nations for sustainable development. Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC) began working with US-based consultancy firm SPI and the ITU to launch Bangladesh’s first satellite.
Utility/ Outcome for BD Army: BS-1 would promote various national and defence enterprises, including broadcasters, ISPs, governments, and the military. Telephony, radio, and data communications are BS-1's main communication services. The national and military prospects for these main and specialized services is discussed below:
a. Communications Services: Communication services are shown in the Figure below:-
b. Special Services: Enhanced adoption of the communication services will allow various BS-1 services to enhance national and social development.
c. Military Services: In addition to the special services for national development, Bangladesh Armed Forces Division may also establish distinct BS-1 services. Several of these specialized services are shown in the Figure below:-
Enhancement of Combat Effectiveness through Incorporation of SBCS
Value to Quantitative Factor: Philip Hayward provides a measure for combat effectiveness based on ‘probability of success’ in relation to personnel and military strategy. He analysed the measure against three primary factors: capabilities (human and material resources of friendly and hostile troops), environment (weather and topography), and missions (region to hold in the specified objective and the latest time to do it while minimising the costs of achieving the objective). (6)
Therefore, as the incorporation of SBCS will add value to the capability of BD Army, it can be said that it will have a positive qualitative effect on the overall combat effectiveness of BD Army. Korean scholar Youngwoo Lee and Taesik Lee who used a ‘meta-network representation’ approach regarding the opportunities available for military units opined that there are two types of direct engagements with enemy forces in the network model: isolated attacks and coordinated attacks. (7)
To counter hybrid threats, a country needs to develop coordinated effort capabilities. In that sense, the incorporation of SBCS will not only add value to the quantitative aspect of combat effectiveness but also assist BD Army to enhance combat effectiveness in a hybrid war scenario.
Value to Psychological Factors: Cohesion can affect soldiers' fighting performance and help them attain shared goals. According to William Henderson in Cohesion: Combat Humanity: Smaller units have closer interactions, and these bonds are stronger the more they interact. (8) Therefore, the psychological impact of the structure of military units on combat effectiveness is huge. Since SBCS will enhance the efficiency of the communication structure of BD Army, it will have a noteworthy impact on the psychological aspect of the combat effectiveness of our troops in terms of cohesion.
Capability Enhancement for Countering Hybrid Threats: To counter hybrid threats the ‘Detect, Deter and Respond’ formula is the most popular one. SBCS can be correlated with the enhancement of combat efficiency of BD Army based on this model:-
Communication on the Move: Military communication should be smooth in terms of setup, control, and maintenance. Satellite communication involves vehicle-borne equipment and manpacks. This structure will provide BD Army to exercise a smooth and reliable means of communication on the move.
Flexibility and Redundancy: Another important aspect of military communication is to have redundancy and flexibility. The incorporation of SBCS will provide the necessary flexibility to the existing system. On the contrary, within the SBCS, as all the links are interconnected, it provides enough flexibility in the communication structure.
Enhanced Combined Effect of BOSs: In hybrid warfare, there is always a need for the enhanced effect of BOSs. If the threats are taken into consideration, it is evident that, without reliable and effective communication, the desired effect of the BOSs cannot be achieved. Based on the above discussion, it is evident that SBCS is a time-needed affair for BD Army. Though the conceptualisation of SBCS is a time and cost-expensive phenomenon, considering the benefit it must be adopted. Based on the above-mentioned benefits, it is undoubtedly proved that the conceptualisation of SBCS in BD Army will enhance the combat effectiveness of BD Army significantly.
Challenges, Ways Forward and Roadmap to SBCS Challenges
Lack of Experts: Though satellite communication is not new in Bangladesh, the concept of incorporating satellite communication in BD Army is relatively new. Therefore, relevant experts could not grow in BD Army. This is the challenge that must be addressed to incorporate this modern technology.
Phenomenal Capital Expenditure: Another challenge of the satellite communication structure is its phenomenal capital investment requirement. A five-year project was proposed for the satellite communication which will be a huge challenge for a country like Bangladesh.
Requirement of Costly Training Facilities: For growing expertise in BD Army, Army requires costly training facilities. As the training in satellite communication involves real-time satellite involvement, it will be difficult to manage slots in the functional satellite for training purposes only. Therefore, the required training facility involves expensive procedure which is a big challenge.
Rapid Changeover among Communication Means: The combat communication requires high degree of adaptability with the changes of the scenario in the battlefield. It encompasses availability of alternative means of communication media, all weather tenacious structure, required interfacing provision, and flexibility in terms of application. Hence, requirement of rapid changeover among the communication means is always a challenge for the new system to adapt with the existing system.
Interoperability with Joint Services: As different services have their own types of communication gadgets, it will be a huge challenge to incorporate SBCS with other services. Careful planning and management are very much essential to have smooth interoperability among services.
Security Concerns: Though it is not easy to intercept any satellite communication, it is not impossible. It requires huge efforts to breech any satellite-based network. Therefore, security concern in a functional point of view is less for SBCS. However, the physical security of the hub stations is the main problem.
Requirement of Redundancy: Since satellite-based equipment is costly, it is not possible to make provision of enough redundant terminal stations as reserves. Therefore, it is a big challenge for Army to influence the op without the redundant system of SBCS in case of any destruction by the enemy (1).
Ways Forward
Provision of Communications in Irregular Warfare: Communication is vulnerable in a hybrid conflict situation. While conventional communication methods are tested to give conventional warfare communication to fighting echelons, it is a problem to communicate with unconventional warfare troops. Small aperture antennas can be established within a very short time in the forward bases to establish communication with unconventional warfare troops.
Ensure Secure Communication: Bangladesh Armed Forces Division inked an MOU with Bangladesh Satellite Company Limited (BSCL) on 13 May 2022. According to the MOU, Bangladesh Armed Forces can employ three Bangabandhu Satellite-1 transponders for contemporary, secure communications for military. (9) Therefore, Bangladesh is in the right track to achieve more secure communication system using satellite.
Quick Reaction Communication Team (QRCT): Quick response must be incorporated. It will improve satellite ground communications. The powerful satellite communication equipment will test users. Moreover, in extreme scenarios users will have little time to troubleshoot. Therefore, QRCT will be needed to manage ground-based equipment.
Induction of Satellite Communication Equipment: Incorporating satellite communication equipment into the military won’t be easy. The induction process will require funding, training, logistic plan, and joint environment interoperability. A model of this Induction can be suggested as follows:-
Guidance on the Electronic Warfare (EW) Threats: Protecting command, control, and communication networks requires strong electronic warfare capability. (10) Moreover, modern warfare requires superior EW equipment. The EW company was formed in 2009, but it could not acquire offensive ECM so far. Satellite Communication can be a way forward. In the fog of war, it is not a cost-effective solution to strike satellite networks by the enemy. Therefore, satellite links are automatically immune to EW threat.
Provision of Communications in National Crisis: Communication is crucial in a national catastrophe to save lives. This communication is needed for emergency medical supply, relief program administration, transferring individuals to safe shelters, and post-event negotiations. Existing system solely uses radio to connect base. Radio isn’t a secure or dependable communication method. During a national crisis, we cannot set up telephone lines. As satellite communication is more mobile, flexible, reliable, and secure, it can be used during national emergency flawlessly.
Sound Training Plan: As satellite-based communication equipment is complex in nature, the users require extensive training for the setup and management of the equipment. Therefore, BD army should have a sound training plan for its members in Satellite-Based communication equipment.
Plan for Joint Operation: Though different services have their own perspective plan to incorporate SBCS, there is no coordination among the services in this regard. The desired networkcentric model or structure of the joint environment can only be achieved if the coordination is established under a single perspective plan to incorporate the SBCS. A diagrammatic layout of jointness in satellite communication is shown below:-
Roadmap to the SBCS
Extensive Exercise to Institutionalise: After the successful induction of SBCS, there is a need for institutionalisation. The adaptability of the equipment to the organisational framework will render a considerable amount of time. Therefore, to make the institution habituated with the system and to be able to establish the logical links among the various stakeholders of army, BD army needs extensive exercises to be conducted to institutionalise SBCS.
Communication for all Eventualities: In hybrid scenario, all eventualities need to have enough options and contingencies. SBCS can be a milestone for contingency communication. As all battlefield elements will be inter-connected by satellite in SBCS, if one link fails, other elements of the network will broadcast the command to make it up. Therefore, the leaders will be able to influence the battlefield by communicating with their subordinates in all scenarios.
Provision of Head-to-Head Communication: Another important aspect of reaching every corner of the battlefield by the commander of the theatre is to ensure head-to-head to communication. It ensures unity of effort, leadership, full-scale operational execution, less chance of fratricide, and ease of planning. SBCS can ensure this. The main theme of incorporating SBCS into the system is the concept of connecting men from the exact point of contact. BD Army needs to build a culture of head-to-head communication and SBCS is a suitable way of achieving it.
Enhancement of Command and Control: C4ISR cannot be implemented without command and control over every system in the theatre of operation. To accomplish that, the original conventional system must have a robust communication mechanism. Most modern militaries have embraced the SBCS to achieve it.
Network Centric Tactical Communication Architecture: To provide a C4ISR Network-Centric Tactical Communication Architecture for BD Army utilising a satellite backbone, a self-sufficient model is shown in the Figure below:-
Conclusion
In this era of modern technology, battlefields have become fluid. The conflicts among nations are more hybrid in nature. The notion of multi-domain warfare, artificial intelligence, network-centric warfare, and the hybrid characteristics of conflict are more dominating than ever before. Bangladesh is no exception to this. Being the stakeholder of national security, BD army is primarily responsible to assess and analyse possible countermeasures to counter these hybrid threats.
One of the countermeasures is to enhance the combat effectiveness to make the fighting capability of BD Army at par with the modern trend of warfare. For this adaptation, the incorporation of modern equipment in the inventory like the Satellite-based Communication Structure (SBCS) can be an effective way forward for the enhancement of combat effectiveness in the face of Hybrid Warfare. The incorporation of satellite-based communication into the existing framework is imperative for the modernization of the Bangladesh Army.
However, the crux of the matter lies in seamlessly integrating SBCS with the current infrastructure. This can be achieved by establishing interconnectivity among BOSs, interfacing with traditional communication mediums, and precisely delineating the role and functions of satellite communication. While the structure may appear intricate, the implementation process is not unduly burdensome. Hence, with the integration of SBCS, the capability of the Bangladesh Army stands to be significantly enhanced, thereby leading to a positive qualitative impact on its overall combat effectiveness.
In conclusion, the integration of SBCS into the framework of the Bangladesh Army presents both significant challenges and promising opportunities for enhancing its combat capabilities in the modern warfare landscape. Addressing challenges such as the lack of experts, substantial capital expenditure, and the need for costly training facilities is paramount to successfully incorporating satellite-based communication technology.
However, with careful planning and strategic initiatives, including ensuring secure communication channels, establishing quick reaction communication teams, and developing sound training plans, these challenges can be overcome. Furthermore, the roadmap outlined for the deployment of SBCS offers a comprehensive approach towards achieving enhanced command and control, seamless interoperability, and robust communication infrastructure. Ultimately, the adoption of SBCS represents a pivotal step towards modernizing the Bangladesh Army and bolstering its effectiveness in responding to the dynamic challenges of contemporary warfare scenarios.
Recommendations
Army Training and Doctrine Command (ARTDOC) may propose a comprehensive doctrine for hybrid warfare with a special emphasis on Cyber Warfare, Electronic Warfare, Propaganda Warfare, and Information Warfare.
The peculiarity of conventional communication and modern communication must be assessed by the subject matter expert in this field. The communication experts of the Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST) may be incorporated into the feasibility study in terms of technical aspects.
While implementing SBCS, the interoperability among the Joint services should be considered. For that central procurement of the equipment is proposed.
Notes and References
1. Md Ziaul Hoque, ‘Mechanized Infantry - A Future Arm of Bangladesh Army’, Bangladesh Army Journal, 61st Issue, 2017, pp. 18-30.
2. Darryl Henderson, ‘Cohesion: The Human Element in Combat’, Washington, DC, National Defence University Press, 1985, pp. 24-25.
3. Kumaraswamy Rao, ‘Status Study on the Sustainability of Satellite Communication Systems under Hostile Jamming Environment’, Annual IEEE India Conference, New Delhi, India, 16-18 December 2011.
4. Williamson Murray and Peter Mansoor, Hybrid Warfare: Fighting Complex Opponents from the Ancient World to the Present, New York, USA, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 3.
5. Philip Hayward, ‘The Measurement of Combat Effectiveness,’ Operations Research, INFORMS, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1968, pp. 314-323.
6. Youngwoo Lee and Taesik Lee, ‘A Measure to Assess Combat Effectiveness Using Network Representation,’ SCSC '13: Proceedings of the 2013 Summer Computer Simulation Conference, Ontario, Toronto, Canada 2013, pp.1-7.
7. Wang Jiesheng and Sun Weipu, ‘Value and Methods of Measuring Combat Effectiveness: A New Approach,’ Research Square, 12 April 2021, pp. 1-2.
8. ‘Armed Forces to Use Bangabandhu Satellite,’ The Daily Sun, available at: https://www.dailysun. com/post/620211/Armed-Forces-to-use- Bangabandhu-satellite, accessed on 02 February 2024.
9. Ibid.
10. Monirul Islam, ‘Asymmetric Warfare: Bangladesh Perspective,’ NDC Journal, Mirpur, Dhaka, Vol 7, 2008, pp. 111-132.
